Two contrasting learning theories that have influenced adult learning program development include Behaviorism and Constructivism. Behaviorism argues that “first, observable behavior rather than internal thought processes is the focus of study… second, the environment shapes behavior… and third, the principle of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement…are central to explaining the learning process” (Grippin & Peters, as cited in Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 278). In the creation of an adult learning program, Behaviorism manifests itself in the creation of behavioral objectives and measurements that are linked to rewards. Learning programs with a strong Behaviorist bent would tend to display a great deal of structure and control, be more instructor-driven, and manipulate the external environment in order to produce a series of discrete and observable behavior changes. Knowles, Holton, & Swanson (2005) would characterize Behaviorism as falling under the Elemental worldview or metaphysical system—one in which the universe is seen as a reactive system that is manipulated via a series of discrete stimulus-response combinations.
In contrast, Constructivism would be characterized as being part of the Holistic worldview or metaphysical system (Knowles et al., 2005)—one in which the universe is viewed as an active and evolving organism. Constructivism argues that “learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their experience” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 291). In the creation of an adult learning program, Constructivism manifests itself in the creation of shared meanings, use of dialogue and teamwork, collaborative and cooperative learning, situated learning, reflective practice, and communities of practice (Merriam et al., 2007). Learning programs with a strong Constructivism bent would tend to be very facilitative. The learning process would be one that is very student-centered, experiential, and focused on creating opportunities for individuals and small groups to collaborate on the creation of new knowledge and shared meaning.
In reflecting on which learning theory approach has been most evident in my experiences as a developer of adult learning programs, I would have to say that they have all made contributions. Behaviorism acts as the bookends at the beginning and end of programs with its objectives and measurements. Humanism provides purpose with a student-centered approach and the goal of self-actualization. Cognitivism is the engine using such tools and techniques as advance organizers and discovery learning. Social cognitive contributes additional techniques with activities such as fish bowls and triads where learners observe and learn from each other. Constructionist also contributes additional learning techniques with the facilitation of shared meaning, usage of dialogue, collaborative and cooperative learning, situated learning, and reflective practice. All these techniques have been very valuable, making their contributions as appropriate to different audiences’ learning needs and preferences.
Looking to the future, the learning theory approach that best represents my thinking and approach is a blend of primarily Cognitivism, Social Cognitive, and Constructivist, with an underlying foundation of Humanism. As my research focus begins to hone on the intersection of meta-learning, informal learning, and knowledge creation, I find that Cognitivism is relevant from the meta-learning/how to learn perspective. Social Cognitive provides valuable insights into informal learning processes. Constructivist aids in knowledge creation and the usage of Communities of Practice. And, Humanism continues to provide an underlying purpose of helping facilitate each individual’s goal of self-actualization.
References
Knowles, M.S., Holton, E.F., & Swanson, R.A. (2005). The Adult Learner (6th ed ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. (Original work published 1973)
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood (3rd ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
- Robin
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