Webster’s defines an adult as one who is “fully developed and mature” (1989, p. 58). Knowles, Holton, and Swanson define an adult from biological, legal, social, and psychological perspectives (2005, p. 64). Being an adult can be defined chronologically (e.g., when one turns 18 or 21). It can also be defined as once one accomplishes a major life milestone such as having a child or buying one’s own home. Despite many theories and perspectives, a few common descriptors appear: individualism, responsibility, and the ability for complex reasoning. Another common element is that adulthood and adult development are not a fixed destination, but a continuous process (Knowles et al., 2005, p. 220)—a process in which the individual (ideally) continues to grow in their cognitive and compassionate capabilities.
The psychological theory of adult development I believe has the greatest effect on how adults learn is Erikson’s psychosocial development model (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005, pp. 224-225; Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, pp. 306-307). Like other models, Erickson’s model incorporates the concept of change or a crisis event that prompts growth from one developmental stage to the next. Where it differs from age-graded models such as Levinson’s, is that it does not assign specific (but instead predictable or approximate) ages at which all adults proceed from one stage to the next; nor does it assume that all adults will precede through all the levels. Additionally, Erikson argues “that as adults we may revisit earlier stages to resolve or re-resolve conflicts from earlier periods in different ways” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 306). Thus, the adult continues to grow and the stages are not necessarily linear.
In considering these psychological stages of adult development and their implications for adult learning in the workplace, it can help to consider which developmental stages many workplace learners are. For example, per Erikson’s model, many workplace learners are in the middle adulthood phase where the ego development outcome is generativity, self-absorption, or stagnation. Not to be forgotten, the younger adults (ages 18-35) are in the stage where the ego development outcome is intimacy and solidarity versus isolation (Harder, 2002). What this means for adult educators is that younger adults often will prefer more team work and inclusive types of activities. At this stage, their goal is to find mutually satisfying relationships—whether those relationships are between people or between the individual and their employer. Once the adult proceeds to the middle adulthood phase (approximately 35 to 55 or 65), the adult tends “to be occupied with creative and meaningful work and with issues surrounding our family. Also, middle adulthood is when we can expect to ‘be in charge’” (Harder, 2002). For adult educators, the implication is that these adult learners need to be given a good deal of autonomy and opportunity to exert their authority. The adult educator can also provide for deeper experiences by linking the content to some greater meaning, whether for them individually or for the organization. Adult educators must also consider the “teachable moment” of which Havighurst refers (Knowles et al., 2005, p. 223; Merriam et al., 2007, p. 308). Often that teachable moment occurs naturally: due to a promotion, change in job responsibilities, or an internally-motivated developmental ‘life task’ designed to better oneself for either personal or societal gain. When the teachable moment does not occur naturally, adult educators need to consider creating the need and thus trigger a teachable moment. Thus, it can be helpful to start a training session by establishing the need on a very individual level, e.g., through an experiential activity that highlights the learner’s shortcomings (in a non-threatening way), and then by establishing how the training will help correct those shortcomings.
References
Harder, A.F. (2002). The developmental stages of Erik Erikson. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from http://www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson.htm
Knowles, M.S., Holton, E.F., & Swanson, R.A. (2005). The Adult Learner (6th ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. (Original work published 1973)
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S., & Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood (3rd ed.). San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. (1989). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.
- Robin
http://www.perfassocinc.com
